The noun in each phrase can be explained or noun phrases, the results of which are based on a thorough modified by the word expensive in the phrase 1 , the word observation in a fieldwork. A word or 2. Research Methodology words explaining or modifying the head or the headword in This research is empirical, qualitative, and synchronic in a noun phrase is called a modifier. General or standard nature. Definitions on noun phrases have been i.
Thus, this qualitative research Richards et al. The two definitions, one definition is seeks for meanings, to see the world from the viewpoints of from Cook [2] and the other from Richards et al. Meanwhile, pronoun as the main part [the Head]. The noun phrase may the textual analysis method employed in this research is consist of only one word [e. As the newspapers and From the two definitions above, it is clear here that a magazines are distinguished ones, the informants also noun phrase is a group of words consisting of a noun or a presumably meet the requirements for being informants as pronoun as the head and a modifier s.
As can be seen in proposed by Samarin [15], the factors of which include age, the example above, a noun phrase can be of a merely single cultural knowledge, psychological quality, interest and word in theory such as George, or of a long and complex concern, and language skills of the informants.
The words students and through an in-depth observation through skimming and George are the heads of the phrases above, which are each a scanning reading techniques. Other examples of English noun Validity and reliability are also taken into account in this phrases are below: research. Validity is the truth value of a research, which is to measure what should be measured[11].
The validity of Modifier Head this research is of two types, internal and external. The important people internal validity refers to the researcher's report on realities of the data corpuses obtained in form of coherent writings. Head Modifier The external validity refers to the generalisability of this something important research which is applicable to similar other situations.
This is satisfied by a thick description provided in this research Modifier Head Modifier so that other researchers are equipped enough to give three boys in the yard judgements. Other validities applied in this research include the elements of credibility, transferability, dependability, The examples above show us the internal constructions and confirmability, as proposed by Lincoln and Guba [16] of English noun phrases.
In the constructions, the modifiers and Holloway [11]. On the other hand, the reliability or of English noun phrases may occur before or aftar the head, authenticity of this research includes the components of or even in both positions at the same time, ie.
Efforts on the study of the internal catalytic authenticity, and tactical authenticity, as proposed constructions of English noun phrases have been done by, by Lincoln and Guba[16]. The researcher has as taken into account by Jumanto [9], [10] are as: 1 tried to relate the works to one another, to come to subject, 2 object of verb, 3 object of preposition, and 4 generalities.
The researcher then provides explanations or complement, such as in the examples below: discussions on the research findings in a synthesis. The research findings and some proposed theses are then 1 Subject brought to an end as a conclusion to this research article. The house on the corner belongs to my uncle. A heavy rain falls once a week. A ship went out to sea.
A brief illustration for Model 1 can be seen in the chart [7] below: [2. That snake bit the man. I saw the boy. I told the boy a funny story. He gave the dog a bone.
The girl with long hair is my sister. As we see in Model 1 above, the head of a noun phrase That bird lives on sweet fruit. The priority sequence on modification of noun phrases in the context of teaching technical texts is: a noun, [4. I am a freshman in this university. Latorre and Pons [7] propose Model 2 as follows: [4.
He appointed his sister his secretary. They elected him the leader of their group. Besides several functions of noun phrases according to Jumanto [9], [10] above, there are another two functions explained earlier by Greenbaum [8]. These two functions are: premodifier and adverbial [8], as can be seen in the illustration below: Model 2 above is similar to Model 1, but the two are 5 Premodifier distinct in the priority sequence on modification.
The Milk production is down this year. Interesting 6 Adverbial here is, as can be seen in the chart of Model 1, Latorre and The term finishes next week. Pons have involved an imperative verb [V-imp] in a You will not succeed that way. This is, 3. Theories on Noun Phrases nevertheless, just a mere example without any further account. In this section, four theories on the internal constructions of English noun phrases are presented, i.
The four theoretical models of noun types: elementary noun phrases and partitive noun phrases phrases are in a brief account below. According to Baker [3] elementary noun phrases can be of: 1 pronouns and proper nouns, 2 elementary noun 3. Karen met all the senators. John believes that we deceived ourselves. David introduced Mr.
Jones to John Smith. Karen fed both alligators. Karen fed both of the alligators. The noun phrase the book or that side of that side of the table the table, for instance, is described by Baker [3] in a tree these students of chemistry diagram below: those kings of England NP 3 elementary noun phrases introduced by quantity words, some books Det CNP many suggestions several marbles the CN 4 bare noun phrases Jock wants to buy cookies.
Horton eats veal. The common noun phrase eorge met a cousin of the king. The noun phrase that side of the table is described in a 6 a special possibility for proper nouns tree diagram below: No John Smiths attended the meeting. Greta knows thirteen John Smiths. Det CNP 7 some special combined forms Someone did something. Everyone looked everywhere. A modifier is regarded as a unit Meanwhile, postmodifiers in English noun phrases can dependent upon the main word noun and is optional.
Subordinated Group. In English noun phrases, modifiers can be some books in the library premodifiers and postmodifiers. These are all called general or the book standard noun phrases, which occur in most English noun phrases.
Contemporary English Noun Phrases 4. The three types of worlds apart contemporary English noun phrases are taken into further business as usual summer in the city accounts below. Standard Contemporary English Noun Phrases hunger in a world of plenty These standard contemporary noun phrases are noun programs of study summer in the city phrases resulting from the arrangements of heads and assessment of data obtained modifiers.
The Data Analyses a born-again cowboy Analyses on the data of contemporary English noun gas-powered electricity plant phrases are presented in three sections below. The internal construction of each 4. However, apart from their differences in 12 the oil-rich countries complexity, the seven noun phrases have things in common, 13 big-thinking politicians that is resulting from the arrangements of Modifier around Head, thus either premodifiers or post modifiers.
For further The phrase 8 the ten-year-old children under analysis accounts, the results of analyses on modifiers can be seen in has the same meaning as the phrase the children who are Table 6 below: ten years old; however, their forms are different. The phrase the children who are ten years old is a standard noun phrase Table 6.
In other words, No. Premodifier Head Postmodifier the phrase 8 is a result of transformation process, from the [1] monetary issues [adjective] [noun] standard noun phrase the children who are ten years old to the special noun phrase the ten-year-old children. Upon [2] industrial land prices similar analyses, the phrases 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , and 13 [adjective][noun] [noun] are also the results of transformation process of standard [3] project in three stages noun phrases.
The standard noun phrases of the special [noun] [prepositional phrase] noun phrases 8 to 13 above, are, therefore, as follows: [4] diamonds in the rough Premodifier Head Postmodifier [noun] [prepositional phrase] the children who are ten years old [5] the bomb explosions in Bali a film which you must see [determiner][noun] [noun] [prepositional phrase] an animal which has four legs our consultation which is oriented [6] automotive industry in Central Java [adjective] [noun] [prepositional phrase] to results the countries which are rich in oil [7] an approval of the owner of politicians who think big [determiner] [noun] particular products or services [preposisional phrase] Transforming the standard noun phrases into the special noun phrases 8 to 13 has shown such a creativity by granting rights to English language users that they have managed to change another party postmodifiers into premodifiers.
In this case, the change is a [verb —ing phrase] transformation the form changed, but the meaning to use or to market maintained , not just a mere transposition the position such product changed of modifiers.
The same nouns e. Special contemporary English noun phrases of postmodifiers are changed into adjectives e. Logically as well as from Table 4 above. Let us examine the data below: empirically, the original forms of the special noun phrases in Table 4 above are presumably as can be seen in Table 8 the ten-year-old children 7 below: 9 a must-see film 10 a four-legged animal 1 This noun phrase represents a conceptual definition of franchise in the business world.
Table 7. Special contemporary English noun phrases of Type 1 as the new are the results of transformation and transposition of transformed constructions of standard noun phrases modifiers postmodifiers into premodifiers , which is a creativity by English-language users or English-speaking Special noun phrases Standard noun phrases societies.
Special Contemporary English Noun Phrases of our results-oriented consultation our consultation which is oriented Type 2 to results the oil-rich countries the countries which are rich in oil Again, for the sake of ease on analyses, five phrases are a tough-minded Algerian an Algerian diplomat who has taken from Table 5 above.
Let us examine the data below: diplomat tough mind both small-and-large-scale power investments 14 the poor power investments in both small and large scales big-thinking politicians politicians who think big 15 the rich high-ranking officers officers who rank high 16 the weak small-cap stock valuations stock valuations of small cap ital 17 the bold all-too-true love love which is all too true 18 the beautiful a kilogram Siamese cat a Siamese cat which weighs 23 kilograms his national-security adviser his adviser on national security To analyze special contemporary noun phrases of Type wide-open spaces spaces which are wide open 2, examine the noun phrase 14 the poor.
The noun phrase a born-again cowboy a cowboy who is born again 14 the poor has no Head explicitly; however, the Head is gas-powered electricity plant electricity plant which is powered by gas known by the readers implicitly. Let us observe the noun a four-door saloon a saloon which has four doors phrases in the sentences below: haj-related professions professions which are related to haj Do not treat the poor badly. Logically, which level low the hidden Heads in the three sentences are the same, i.
Thus, we can see that the three sentences above are a fifth-year student a student of the fifth year derived from the more complete ones below: Japanese ODA-funded project project which is funded by Japanese ODA Do not treat the poor people badly. Thus, the hidden Head of the noun phrase 14 the poor is bound to a context, i.
In addition to the four principles mentioned above which Under the same line of analysis, the noun phrase 14 the are applicable for producing special noun phrases of Type poor together with the hidden Head and its binding context 1, there seems to be another principle, that is a principle is completely seen below: concerning the change of postmodifiers, e.
This can be called a principle of form summary. These empirical, logical Under the same analyses, the noun phrases 15 , 16 , assumptions are, of course, not the only one set; however, 17 , and 18 above have the hidden Heads and their they have managed to give accounts for the original binding contexts as follows: constructions of special noun phrases of Type 1.
The special noun phrases above can be seen as bearing the same functions and meanings as their relative standard noun phrases. Here The third interesting thing in special noun phrases of Type 2 below are special noun phrases listed out, including those is: 3 that the premodifiers are adjectives, which are mostly under analysis above.
Thus, the hidden Heads and their binding contexts in Table 8 below. Special noun phrases of Type 2 together with the hidden Heads phrases, and the other is 2 special noun phrases of Type 1 and their binding contexts and Type 2.
Premodifier Hidden Head Head-Binding Context determiner adjective the poor people a particular social 5. Implications group As a syntactical category, a phrase plays an important the rich people a particular social role in a sentence, so it is inevitably needed, and so does an group English noun phrase. The quality the haunting ghosts a particular entity arrangement may employ two elements, e. In the special noun phrases of Type 2 above, it can be Meanwhile, the other two types of contemporary English seen that the Heads are hidden, as the meanings can be noun phrases, as the other findings of this research, i.
Three things are interesting here, i. These two types of 1 that special noun phrases of Type 2 only employ English noun phrases are special constructions created by premodifiers or do not involve postmodifiers; and 2 that the native speakers for a special purpose Non-native the hidden Heads are attached to a particular context, e.
The English elliptical noun phrases ; standard noun phrases a cowboy who is born again and the countries which are rich in oil whose postmodifiers are 2 Standard noun phrases are constructions resulting from transformed and transpositioned into premodifiers in the the arrangement of modifiers around the Head. This creative phenomenon is elaborated into the five principles already mentioned above. Therefore, the three noun phrases with no d The meaning of modifiers is maintained despite the headwords or hidden Heads can still be understood as well transformation and transposition; as they are with complete Heads, i.
The users in this case: the native speakers have chosen to use the noun phrases with hidden Heads e. The use of this type of creative noun the countries which are rich in oil the oil-rich countries phrases will probably be also imitated by non-native festivities in the end of the year year-end festivities speakers of English due to the hegemony effect of English settlements in the long term long-term settlements as international language and learning factors of the non- a film which you must see a must-see film native speakers.
I would also like to acknowledge the librarians at the faculty of cultural Jumanto studies at the university, who were very helpful for the data A PhD Graduate, University of Indonesia, Jakarta, collection as well as their management.
Semarang: Academy of Languages of 17 August [1] V. Fromkin and R. Rodman, An Introduction to Language. Semarang , Orlando: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Holloway, Basic Concepts for Qualitative Research. English, however, has prepositions which include in, under, of, to, and among others.
English may also have complex prepositions consisting of nouns such as on top of, at the bottom of and among others. The use of postpositions derived from body part nouns is also attested in Safaliba Note 5 Gur, Niger Congo , a language closely related to Dagaare Owusu et al.
Having discussed the elements that constitute the structure of the simple clause, we now turn our attention to the basic word order of the simple sentences in these languages. Word Order Languages may differ from one another in the way in which the constituents are ordered. This section discusses the order of elements in the simple clause. Word ordering in clauses concerns how the subject, object and verbs occur in the clause.
Let us first consider the word order of Akan simple clause. Akan has a strict SVO word order. The Goal precedes the Theme in a double object construction and the adjunct occurs at clause final position. Example 31 shows the linear order of constituents in a simple double object clause and 32 provides an instance. A simple clause is structured when focus slots are filled. When a constituent is also questioned as shown in 34c the declarative word order is maintained.
Deri ku ma la gan Deri give 1SG. Focus constructions in Dagaare involve the fronting of a non-verbal constituent in the clause followed by the focus marker la, the subject and the verb as illustrated in 37c and d. When focus slots are filled a simple clause is as shown in 37a.
Example 37b is the basic form of 37c and d. In transitive clauses; the subject precedes the verb and the direct object follows the verb as illustrated in The boy gave the book to Kofi. The boy gave Kofi the book. We observe in 38 that the subject the child precedes the verb broke while, the object the plate follows the verb broke. Basic Locative Construction This section discusses how location is grounded in space. Grinevald, , p. Let us begin with Akan. This is followed by the locative verb and a postpositional phrase which denotes the GROUND where the figure is located.
The postposition as already discussed above is in most cases a grammaticalized body part noun. The following examples 41 illustrate some of the verbs used in locative construction.
Postpositions, therefore, add meaning to the locative construction. It specifies the exact position of the figure. Dispositional verbs are the marked forms and they are usually used to specify the portion of the figure. This is followed by the locative verb and a postpositional phrase which defines the GROUND where the figure is situated.
The postposition as already discussed above is a grammaticalized body part noun in most instances. Dagaare, like Akan, has dispositional verbs which specify the position of the figure. Here, the part of the figure is directly in contact with the upper part of the reference object and it is supported at another end. This could be due to the fact that the verb itself carries the spatial information and so the search domain becomes redundant.
This is followed by the existential copula verb and a prepositional phrase which specifies the GROUND where the figure is located. The preposition provides the spatial information.
This section has shown that English does not have verbal operations expressing spatial grounding. However, Akan and Dagaare employ dispositional verbs to express spatial grounding.
Conclusion This paper has considered the similarities and differences of the simple clause structures in three languages: English, Akan and Dagaare. First, we discussed the noun phrases. It was shown that Akan and Dagaare, unlike English, have noun class system. Nouns typically follow determiners in Dagaare and English whereas nouns precede determiners in Akan. Akan and Dagaare have a similar NP structure where nominal heads precede demonstrative, numeral and adjectival modifiers whereas in English nominal heads occur at phrase-final position.
Second, in the discussion of the verb phrase we noted the existence of serial verb construction is unique to Akan and Dagaare. Third, adpositional phrase was examined. We noted that Akan has both prepositions derived from verbs and postpositions derived from body part nouns; Dagaare has postpositions also derived from body part nouns whereas English employs prepositions only.
With regards to the basic word order, we demonstrated that all the three languages have a similar SVO word order. However, Akan and Dagaare word order is modified in focus constructions. Again, the basic locative construction was discussed. It was revealed that both Akan and Dagaare employ one unmarked locative verb and other dispositional verbs and postpositions in locative constructions whereas English employs a locative copula and prepositions to form locative constructions.
Generally, the paper observed that despite the differences, Akan and Dagaare have a lot in common as compared to English. This, of course, shows how distant English, an Indo-European language, is from the two African languages.
It is important to note, however, that there are also areas of significant variation between these languages. Picture series for positional verbs: eliciting the verbal component in locative description.
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dakubu, K. The languages of Ghana. London: Kegan Paul International. Dorvlo, K. A grammar of Logba Ikpana. Word order. Shopen Ed. II pp. Grimm, S. Numbers and markedness: A view from Dagaare. Prinzhorn, V. Zobel Eds. Grinevald, C. The expression of static location in a typological perspective. Robert Eds. The background to the study of the language of space. Wilkins Eds. Osam, K. From serial verbs to prepositions and the road between.
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